Author's Note:
As a disclaimer, this article is in no way meant to be of an academic standard; whilst I have used referencing throughout it, I have also relied on websites and Wikipedia for information. As a result, I apologise if anything I have written is slightly incorrect and if you're a lecturer or academic, please don't kill me for using Wiki :)
Origins
Feminism as we know it did not become a thing until the 19th century, that does not mean however that it did not exist before that.
In 'Republic' (375 BC), Plato advocated that women are equal to men, and that they possess 'natural capacities' which are adequate for the governance and defence of Ancient Greece. Of course, he faced a LOT of opposition at the time as women were seen as nowhere near as equal as men, so much so that in 215 BC, The Oppian Law (Lex Oppia) was established in Ancient Rome. It aimed to 'restrict luxury and extravagance'; as in, it prevented women from not only obtaining any sort of wealth, such as gold, but it also restricted their display of wealth. As a result, women could not wear more than half an ounce of gold and the colour of their clothing was also restricted (Britannica). Women at the time protested against the Oppian Law, and eventually the law was repealed in 195 BC, but it didn't come easy. Marcus Porcius Cato (Cato the Elder), a Roman soldier and senator who was known for his conservatism, was one of the main opposers of the repeal (Bial and Lizotte). Cato's argument was that as soon as women begin to be treated equal to men, they'll become their superiors (History.com Editors, 2019).
Throughout history, the idea of misogyny and female oppression was further brought up numerous times. For example, Christine de Pizan, protested misogyny and women's rights and their roles within society during the Middle Ages in her book 'The Book of the City of Ladies' (1405). Further, during the 'enlightenment' period*, writers and philosophers such as Margaret Cavendish or Mary Wollstonecraft, argued and advocated for women's rights and equality (History.com Editors, 2019). The history of oppression of women and equally the battle for women's rights dates back to BC, and an article could be dedicated to it in itself.
*1685-1815; a period of time where 'thinkers' questioned traditional authority, and embraced the idea that society and humanity could be made better with change (History.com Editors, 2009)
Definitions
The term 'feminism', derived from 'féminisme', is actually credited to a man - a utopian socialist and French philosopher, Charles Fourier, who first originated the term in 1837. The word wasn't listed in the Oxford English Dictionary until 1852.
Feminism is a political movement that aims to identify and validate the experiences of women and abolish the systematic gender discrimination and inequalities. Feminism studies the inequalities caused by traditional power figures; more specifically, on women and other minorities, such as people of colour, queer people or disabled people, by patriarchal figures and the society (Gregory et. al., 2009:246),
Feminist geographers have argued that gender is a social construct, rather than a simple category one falls into. Those who are born biologically female, are therefore expected to bear children, to be gentle, take care of their families in a literal way. On the other hand, biological men are expected to be tough, they are expected to work the more physically strenuous jobs and to take care of the family financially, putting little work into the raising of children (Williams, 1994). The purpose of feminism as a whole is to get rid of these expectations and gender stereotypes and for experiences of women to be validated and heard.
Feminism is usually separated into four sections: first wave feminism, second wave feminism, third wave feminism and fourth wave feminism. Some argue that there's also a fifth wave.
First Wave Feminism: Suffragettes and the Right to Vote
Feminism has been growing and developing, and still is, at different rates all over the world. The below cases are only two of many, and there is much more to each of the stories.
The first wave of feminism in the United Kingdom focused on women's fight for the right to vote. It was first led by peaceful suffragists, like Millicent Fawcett, and then by more militant suffragists like Emmeline Pankhurst. Suffragists believed that women "could not be free unless they were self-governing and felt that women must enter the political sphere in order to make a change" (Hall, 2018).
Pankhurst was frustrated by the lack of progress, so she founded the WSPU (Women's Social and Political Union'. Their motto was 'Deeds not words'. Pankhurst's interest in women's suffrage started in 1880, in 1903 she founded the WSPU and by 1918 it was disbanded. The WSPU was limited to women only, their aim was to obtain the right to vote for women by ANY MEANS. Consequently, the union was known for their radical and militant approach, such as hunger strikes or violence (UK Parliament) Pankhurst's eldest daughter, Christabel, became the strategist for the movement, which was a response to the 'Great Reform Act of 1832', in which only 'male persons' were allowed to have property, thus excluding all women (The National Archives)
In the United States however, early feminists were fighting for their own rights in different ways. In 1848, Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton proclaimed their 'Declaration of Sentiments' at the The Seneca Fall Convention. The declaration, which can be found here, demanded rights for women by "inserting the word 'woman' into the language of the Declaration of Independence and included a list of 18 woman-specific demands", which included divorce and the right to vote (Michaels, 2017). When this passed, the women's suffrage movement began. Despite the proclamation taking place in 1848, the first state to give women the right to vote was New Zealand in 1893, 45 years later (History.com Editors, 2019).
In 1918 and 1920, women in both the United Kingdom and the US were finally able to vote, and soon after were also able to enter politics (Hall, 2018).
Second Wave Feminism: Focusing on Equality and Anti-Discrimination
The second wave of feminism, also known as the 'women's liberation movement', is thought to be a response to women returning to their traditional roles as mothers and housewives after the world wars; the workforce which had been occupied by women whilst men were at war, was now replaced with men and women were fired. This brought on anger and consequently, the second wave of feminism. It originated at first in the US, but quickly spread to other western countries (Anand, 2018).
The first wave aimed to establish the right to vote, on the other hand, the second wave feminists fought for social, sexual and reproductive freedom, which accompanied the availability of the pill in the United Kingdom in 1961. They advocated for a universal sisterhood and believed that 'the personal is political', which was Carol Hanisch's motto (Hall, 2018). Hanisch is an American, radical feminist who argues that personal experiences are connected to larger socio-political structures. Her motto was heavily used during the 60s and 70s in feminist rallies (Wikipedia).
Women were shown as inferior in the media and the culture, and one of the aims of feminists during this time was to change that; they began writing their own books, directing their own movies and many more. A book which inspired a lot of it was 'The Feminine Mystique', by Betty Friedan, which aimed to show the assumptions which are made about women and what their lives should be like, that according to popular culture they should be restricted to motherhood and the household only (Anand, 2018).
The second wave had many successes; women were now more involved in advocating for their own rights, organisations which aimed to help that were created and many laws and legislations were achieved, such as the US 'Equal Pay Act 1963', or UK 'Equal Pay Act of 1970'. The equal pay act in the United Kingdom was established following a a three-week strike of female sewing machinists from a Ford factory in Dagenham in 1968. All 187 machinists travelled to London to be joined by the employment secretary at the time, MP Barbara Castle (History Revealed). Whilst during the second wave a lot was done for women, it also faced a lot of backlash for being very white and middle class entered. This is where intersectional feminism stemmed from (Hall, 2018).
Third Wave Feminism: The Privileging of White, Cis Women
There is still a lot of confusion around the third wave, as no one really knows when it began, or if it is still going on, or whether the fourth wave has now succeeded it. However, generally speaking the third wave began in the early 90s, marked by the Anita Hill case in 1991, when she testified in congress that she had been sexually harassed at work by Clarence Thomas, a Supreme Court nominee. This set off a numerous amount of sexual harassment complaints from women as they now had the courage to come forward with their stories. Consequently, a lot of the early third wave feminism focused on the battle against sexual harassment in the work place as well as the abuse of power by men. Thus, shifting the aim to the increase in the amount of women in positions of power (Grady, 2018).
It learned a lot from the first and second waves, and consequently got rid of the 'universal sisterhood' ideologies where LGBTQ and trans women were rejected. Instead, they focused on "feminism defined by the individual" (Hall, 2018). Activists like Judith Butler and Kimberlé Crenshaw played a massive role during the third wave. Butler argued that gender is a social construct, and that gender and sex are separate, and Crenshaw introduced the idea of intersectional feminism; this meant that those who had been excluded during the previous waves of feminism, were finally given a voice (Grady, 2018).
Feminists finally understood that beauty has nothing to do with intelligence, consequently embracing push-up bras, high heels and make-up to show the patriarchy that they are not mutually exclusive. Girl bands like The Spice Girls and pop stars like Madonna preached girl power and feminists preached with them. Women began reclaiming slurs like 'slut', 'bitch' or 'whore', in order to undermine sexists and reject the idea of women being victims, and to feel empowered (Hall, 2018). Another influential factor was the rise of the 'riot grrrl' movement, which stemmed from 'the Riot Grrrl Manifesto', written by Kathleen Hanna, a lead singer of Bikini Kill, as a zine in 1991 (Grady, 2018). The movement was an underground feminist punk movement, formed in the US; it combined feminism, punk music and politics. The Riot grrrl movement inspired punk music which addressed issues such as rape, sexuality, racism and female empowerment; further, it became a subculture which involved activism, political movements and art in the form of zines etc (Wikipedia).
One thing worth noting is that by the early 90s, Britain no longer found feminism as 'fashionable'. They, like a lot of other European women, felt like they achieved enough equality already and associated feminism as Western, bra-burning and militant (Abrahams, 2017). This further highlights the unevenness of the development of women's rights.
The Riot Grrrl Manifesto, Zines, and Kathleen Hanna.
Intersectional Feminism
Kimberlé Crenshaw, an American law professor came up with the term 'intersectional feminism in 1989', she explains it as a "prism for seeing the way in which various forms of inequality often operate together and exacerbate each other". Her focus is that not all inequalities are created equally, through an intersectional approach she shows that people's social identities can overlap and therefore can create different levels and experiences of discrimination, which can link together. She urges that inequalities are not separate, as in, e.g. race inequality is not separate from gender, class or status inequality; and how some people may experience ALL of these inequalities at once and that they can overlap (UNWOMEN, 2020). Intersectional feminism focuses on giving a voice to those, who experience such overlapping inequalities.
"If you see inequality as a 'them' problem or 'unfortunate other' problem, that is a problem" - Kimberlé Crenshaw
Fourth Wave Feminism: The Digital Age
Fourth wave feminism is claimed to have began in 2012, but it is not for sure known if that is the case. Some have even argued that we are now entering the fifth wave. Either way, feminism now focuses on sexual harassment, rape culture, body shaming amongst many more. The issues are often brought forward online, which makes it so unique in comparison to the past waves. Women are no longer reliant on the media and what it broadcasts - they can tell their own stories on social media, which brings a lot more light to them as a result (Britannica).
The fourth wave once again builds on its predecessors; this time with a focus on inclusivity. This is where Crenshaw's intersectionality comes in. Feminists are now realising that 'white feminism' which was the focus during the first two waves, ignored the issues which are faced by people of colour as well as LGBTQ+. Finally, it is accepting those who are not biologically female and becoming more inclusive in the process, giving the voice to everyone who needs it (Soken-Huberty, No Date).
The divide between the third and fourth wave still is not clear, and there is no agreement as to when one ended and the next began. Many argue that the beginning of the fourth wave of feminism is marked with the beginning of the #MeToo movement, which was founded by Tarana Burke, others like feminist Jessica Valenti, think that the fourth wave is online. Grady also argues that the current wave of feminism is 'conceived and propagated online'; some of the activism takes place online, e.g. twitter in the form of the #MeToo movement, some also takes place on the streets as strikes and marches are becoming even more popular. Movements and projects such as #MeToo, Time's Up, Mattress Performance (Carry That Weight) or #YesAllWomen have all stemmed from social media and the internet (Grady, 2018).
Fourth wave feminists have received a lot of backlash for the #MeToo movement from earlier wave feminists; especially the second wave, who have placed the blame on the victims. For example, Germaine Greer, a second-wave feminist who claimed that those who 'opened their legs' in return for a role in a movie, have then consented to it and they should not be 'whinging' about it now. However, it is worth noting that it isn't just 'second-wavers' which are speaking out against the #MeToo movement; others who are too young to have been involved in it are also turning against women. This, in a way, has created a war amongst feminists (Grady, 2018).
These however are not the only issues which women have faced in the current wave of feminism. In 2017, Donald Trump was inaugurated as the President of the United States - in response, the day after his inauguration, millions of women marched in response to his campaign and his sexist, misogynistic and conservative views (Abrahams, 2017). One of his perhaps most known controversies amongst women is from the 'Access Hollywood' tapes, where Trump and television host, Billy Bush, are heard talking about women - Trump did not know he was still being recorded. In particular Trump describes an incident where he tried to make a move on a married woman, and that further he might even attempt to kiss the woman him and Bush are about to meet. He followed with "I don't even wait. And when you're a star, they let you do it. You can do anything. ... Grab 'em by the pussy. You can do anything", which has since been described by lawyers as sexual assault (Wikipedia). Trump was president for four years, and misogyny and sexism throughout his presidency deserves a whole article within itself. The audio can be heard below:
In the United Kingdom, women also have not had it easy. Up until October 2019, abortion was illegal in Northern Ireland; in contrast, abortion was decriminalised in England in 1967 under the '1967 Abortion Act' (BBC News, 2019). It is worth noting that whilst it has been decriminalised the accessibility of such services is still next to none. Women are still being made to travel to England, even during a pandemic, in order to have an abortion. A drama documentary which recently aired on BBC One, 'Three Families', which can be found here, tells the struggles of Northern Irish women and explains the obstacles they have had to face in fighting for their reproductive rights (Brown, 2021). One of the stories is based on a real-life case, where a Northern Irish mother was accused of two counts of procuring and supplying abortions drugs to her daughter with the intent to procure a miscarriage in 2013 - following the decriminalisation of abortion in 2019, she was found not guilty (BBC News, 2019). The drama gave a voice to women all over Northern Ireland. The sad thing is that abortion rights are just the tip of the iceberg in terms of what feminists are fighting for right now.
Backlash and Conclusions
Whilst the goal of feminism is for women to feel empowered and for their experiences to be heard and validated, the patriarchal view of women as victims is an issue in society and it affects the way that feminism and women are portrayed (Walby, 1996). Often, feminism can be given a bad name and can be considered controversial. In some cultures, the idea of feminism itself can be found as disrespectful and can cross boundaries in traditions. As a result, feminism can’t have a ‘one size fits all’ perspective. Development as a whole never takes place at the same rate and is rarely ever even, therefore, the rate and evenness of development of gender equality shouldn’t be expected to take place overnight and at the same pace everywhere either.
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