The late David Bowie is a cultural icon, using imagery of the alien, unknown and space exploration to create a space for his career to flourish. In this essay, I will be analysing Bowie’s personas, namely Major Tom and Ziggy Stardust, and how they have attributed to our cultural understanding of outer space. Analysis of these personas will be through geographical theory, looking at imaginative geographies particularly, and contrasting the narrative of space and space exploration the presentation Bowie develops. The two personas will then be juxtaposed with one
another to establish themes in the way Bowie represents outer space.
Imaginative geographies have often focused on the novel as the ‘supreme’ (Porteous, 1985) way of representing a space. It may be easy to see why this is the case; arguably if one is literate, it is possible to consume and imagine a landscape created and described in words. While this may be accessible, proponents of non-representational theory (NRT) argue visual media removes the livingness of the world; rather, the world is experienced through a performance of ‘luminous instants’ (Thrift, 2008, pp.5), which can be represented by media; in this case specifically musical performance. Indeed, being ‘more expressive than words’ (Shaw, 2017), music can help shape how we feel and relate to a place. This helps create an ‘affect’, which may be especially important when the space being described is largely unreachable and unknowable to its wider audience. Therefore, artists such as Bowie who present an image of such places, through a medium which stirs emotions become important cultural icons.
Boldly going and gone: Major Tom
Bowie’s career has largely centered around imagery of Otherness, which has manifested in both dystopian themes of his music and his personas. Major Tom was the first consistent character used by Bowie, making his first appearance in Space Oddity (1969). The song narrates the doomed journey of astronaut Major Tom who mysteriously disconnects from ground control. Linking the song to the successful launch of Apollo 11 in the same year is unavoidable, especially as it was used by the BBC during their coverage of the flight. As a result, Major Tom became an enduring part of the national imagination as humanity took its first steps on alien planets; through Space Oddity the population was able to relate and identify with a journey and place they will unlikely ever experience.
Musical composition helps to achieve the aim of bringing outer space to earth; for example, Lupro (2015) compared the fade in the introduction and end to being in orbit. Moreover, through reflection in the lyrics describing ‘remoteness, weightlessness as well as the vison of earth’ (Ubeda, 2019, pp.156) a sublime landscape is constructed. These images of ‘floating…far above the moon’ expressed through both the music and lyrics creates a feeling that contrasts with reason; that is reason, explained by Kant as seeking ‘systematic wholeness’ (Murdoch, 1959, pp.45). The audience is invited to feel the awe and loneliness of orbiting the earth through Tom’s narrative however they cannot comprehend truly the ‘wholeness’ of such a vast area. Additionally, Lupro talks of an uncertainty being created, describing the instrumental introduction as akin to a funerary ‘march’ (pp.19). This unease of the unknown perhaps resonated with most people, making it easier to identify with.
However, the narrative of the song is ultimately a doomed one. Major Tom loses contact with ground control as the ‘circuit’s dead’. The fate of Tom and the spacecraft is left ambiguous; Lupro hypothesises intentional sabotage by Tom, breaking free of the terrestrial ground control. Indeed, the assertion made that ‘my spaceship knows which way to go’ followed by Tom’s goodbye to his wife suggest Tom is breaking free of the Earth with some conviction. Regardless of the Tom’s motivation, he appears to have accepted his fate as his calm tone contrasts with ground control’s panic expressed through the repetition of ‘can you hear me Major Tom?’. Additionally, Tom’s final line is ‘there’s nothing I can do’; this helplessness and surrender to space further accentuates its vastness and emptiness.
The idea of escaping to outer space as a ‘cure’ for ‘geographical ills’ (Willamson, 1987, pp. 269) is not a new one. Literature may present the move to new planets as the only way to save the human genome (e.g ‘Do Androids dream of electric sheep’, Phillip. K. Dick), or as a way humanity must evolve and progress (e.g ‘Children of time’ series, Adrian Tchaikovsky). As a result, the imaginative geography created for outer space is ‘positive, romantic and masculine’ (Williamson, 1987, pp.260) as space is colonised by brave and heroic terrestrial explorers. Space oddity, and the plight of Tom more generally, seems to avert this account, instead presenting a lone and initially lost explorer drifting in the void of space. There is no reason given for why Tom was sent into space, although the lyrics suggest Tom’s ascent will be used for commercial purposes; ‘And the papers want to know whose shirts you wear’.
An axe to break the ice: Tom's desire to return
The subversion of the traditional image of space exploration is revisited in 1980 with Ashes to ashes. Tom’s mythology is continued, but rather showing a heroic, tragic figure, he is conflated with drug use and the more personal struggles of Bowie himself. The willingness to place the once exciting endeavour of space travel alongside drug use could reflect how the industry declined in the 1980s. Major Tom being discredited as a ‘junkie’ additionally hints at the decay of space to purely a concept; the ‘lived’ experiences of Tom have been regulated to a drug trip. In doing this, the reality of visiting space is placed firmly into the space of imagination. Furthermore, moral geographies can be considered when looking at the presentation of space in Ashes to ashes. In associating an action which is seen as immoral (Gallupe, Baron, 2010) with the physical place of outer space, the landscape is transformed into ‘immoral’ or ‘bad’. Moreover Tom is separated from the ‘moral authority’ of the community (that is, ground control and the population of the Earth) increasing the sense that outer space and Tom himself, represent immoral places (Smith, 2000, pp.78.) Consequently, this representation reflects the emerging disappointment at space travel ‘failing to live up to expectations’ (New York times, 1998).
The jaded separation and Othering in Ashes to ashes can be contrasted to the way in which Space oddity brings space closer to the audience. As stated, the composition of Space oddity evokes an otherworldliness and sublimity; the listener is transported to space as the narrative is told through Major Tom. Meanwhile, the narrative of ashes to ashes separates Tom into space and away from his terrestrial home. This difference is emphasised at the end of the song with a nursery rhyme like chant, ‘My mama said, to get things done, you better not mess with Major Tom’. Instead of evoking awe and ‘spaciousness’, the musical composition of Ashes to ashes carries a ‘sterile air’ (Heller, 2017), achieved through layered synthesised guitar and a flanger altered grand piano. The unknown of space is focused and represented rather than the awe.
Ziggy Stardust: I'm the space invader
The crux of Ziggy’s characterisation is that he is alien; both in terms that he is extra-terrestrial and socially ‘other’. Described as a ‘Martian messiah who twanged a guitar’ (McLeod, 2003, pp.341), he is presented as the alien saviour of Earth as an unknown apocalyptic event threatens its destruction. He was unveiled in 1972 alongside the titular concept album ‘The rise and fall of Ziggy Stardust and the spiders from Mars’, introduced fully in track three ‘Moonage daydream’. This is after a dystopian landscape has been established in ‘Five years’, perhaps casting doubt on his intentions as he may be interpreted as a catalyst of the end of the world. Imagery of the apocalypse would have been especially resonating with audiences at the time, due to the ongoing Cold war and Cuban missile crisis in 1963.
This representation of a hostile alien invader is not new, with ‘alien anxiety permeating western culture’ (McLeod, pp. 337). However Ziggy’s arrival and reception on earth subvert this, shown by the lyrics in ‘Starman’. Particularly, it is younger people that are excited for Ziggy’s arrival. When considering the socio-economic climate of the 1970s in the UK (see fig. 1 and 2), the arrival of glam rock ‘provided a mental and physical space…to challenge gender and sexual identity’ (Gildart, 2013, pp.151). Gildart particularly credits ‘working class radicalism’ in changing glam rock into a ‘cultural force’ (2013, pp.151) through its ‘musical endorsement of the radical other’ (Shaw, 2017, pp.307). Ziggy’s popularity was promoted through these circumstances, as they demystified a concept of the Other (specifically, androgyny and queer spaces) as well as presented alienness and outer space as an area of potential. In an interview with NME in 1972, Bowie agrees with the statement made that the album was ‘optimistic’ in tone, specifically highlighting ‘Starman’ as an example (Bowie, 1972, reprinted by Murray, 2012). In fact, this optimism is heard musically, as the chorus follows the tune to ‘Over the rainbow’ (1939). But instead of the pastoral landscape featured in ‘Somewhere over the rainbow’ Ziggy allows listeners to ‘detach from humanity’ (Sage, 2014, pp.3)
Fig 1. ONS, 2019, 'The gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate and the unemployment rate have generally been falling since the mid-1980s', [online image]
Fig 2. OSN, 2019, ': Interest rates and consumer prices index (CPI) inflation have been on a downward trend since 1991', [online image].
This is in contrast with how Bowie utilises outer space in the 80s when he revisits Major Tom. Arguably, this presentation of outer space is more typical of the narrative permeating imaginative geographies. Ziggy, and by extension Bowie, show outer space to be a place of opportunity and a ‘monumental distraction’ (Parker, 2011, pp.29) from terrestrial conflicts. Yet in ‘celebrat[ing] the marginal’ (Shaw, 2017, pp.307) Bowie opens this new world to previously excluded communities. Rather than primarily being a ‘narcissistic fantasy’ for a ‘Western, male, and rich’ (Sage, 2014, pp.3) demographic, outer space is opened to the working class and queer. Moreover, the presentation is not seen as dangerous or immoral, as Tom eventually became, despite arguably the recent Sexual Offences act 1967 being ‘designed to keep homosexuality out of sight, behind closed doors’ (Jowett, 2017, pp.307). Perhaps a reason for this could be that the persona of Ziggy Stardust was not human and thus sufficiently distanced from ‘proper’ human society. Furthermore, Bowie himself was married to Angela (neé) Barnett at the time, perhaps allowing him to separate himself somewhat from Ziggy.
The alien and the astronaut: Similarities and differences
The stories of Major Tom and Ziggy Stardust have many differences which can be investigated to gather a presentation of outer space. The main difference is the perspective from which each story is told and how an audience can relate to this. Tom’s outlook links to his humanity as well as the physical geography of outer space. The infinite limits of Space are focused upon which additionally highlights Tom’s vulnerability and his reliance on technology (Dunnett. Et al, 2019) as he disconnects from Earth. Arguably this presents an overall image of Space as dangerous and unknown. Additionally, Space is a sublime landscape, a signifier of the ‘unconstrained…power of nature’ (pp.5), therefore it can be suggested Tom’s narrative sees him return to ‘nature’ by removing himself from human culture. As Ashes to ashes implies however the removal from society and culture presents consequences (Fig. 3). Ultimately Tom has been presented with an ‘empty freedom’ (Murdoch, 1959, pp.50) as he presumedly ‘embrac[es] the death drive’ (Morely, 2010, pp. 5).
Fig 3. Author's own screenshot from: Bowie. D., (2015), David Bowie – Ashes to Ashes (official video). Image shows David Bowie asMajor Tom attached to various tubes, hanging from a fleshy construct.
In contrast, Ziggy’s narrative is told from the viewpoint of a space alien coming to earth. The specific geography of Ziggy’s home planet (presumably, Mars) is not described, neither is the wider infinity of space. Rather, Ziggy’s portrayal focuses on the persona and the difference they embody. The image of Space as the frontier is switched, with the Earth being shown as Ziggy’s frontier. This possibly reverses the separation of nature-culture caused by Tom as it puts Earth as an alien planet; to Ziggy, Earth is the unknown. Nonetheless, Earth is not portrayed as sublime, as later literature such as ‘Under the skin’ (Faber. M, 2000) set to do, although it is ‘worthwhile’. Ziggy’s arrival brings the audience the possibility of change, setting out Space as an area of opportunity once again. Additionally, as Chapman (2010) states, the presentation of Ziggy on the album cover identifies him with science fiction more explicitly, increasing the association with the fantastic. Chapman points to the album cover being ‘hand coloured’ (pp.34), and Bowie’s contrast with the dull environment as examples of this alienation and science fiction atmosphere.
In conclusion, the music of David Bowie has been hugely influential in the way space is related to by the population. Through a mix of soundscapes and performance, Bowie has presented outer space as an area of contrast; one of restriction and danger through Major Tom yet also as a place full of potential through Ziggy Stardust. During Major Tom’s story arc, Bowie draws on the sublime to present outer space as unknown, dangerous but ultimately a preferred escape route from terrestrial problems. However, with his disconnection from earth, he comes to the realisation of his insignificance. A similar idea carries into the characterisation of Ziggy Stardust, the alien saviour of Earth. However, he presents Space as an area of positive discovery once again and an area for experimentation and self-actualisation. These factors come with re-joining society however, albeit challenging perceptions. The geography is shown through Tom’s story, helping the audience travel through imagination to Space. While Ziggy’s home world is not show, the album from which he originates makes several references to the fantastic nature of space. Their visual performance aids in how the audience understands Space as a concept.
(Fig. 3) Author’s own screenshot: From: Bowie. D., (2015), David Bowie – Ashes to Ashes (official video) [online]. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HyMm4rJemtI. Date accessed: 3/2/2021
Bowie. D., (1980), Ashes to Ashes. United States. RCA records
Bowie. D., (1969), Space oddity. London: Phillips records
Bowie. D., (1972), The rise and fall of Ziggy Stardust and the spiders from Mars’. London. RCA records.
Bowie. D., (1972), ‘Starman’ interviewed by: Geoffrey Cannon for NME. Reprinted in The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/jun/12/david-bowie-ziggy-stardust-interview. Date accessed: 7/2/2021.
Chapman. I., (2015), ‘Ziggy’s urban alienation: assembling the heroic outsider’ in Cinque. T., Moore., C., Redmond. S., (eds), Enchanting David Bowie: space/time/body/memory, London, Bloomsbury academic. Pp. 27 – 48
Dick. P. K., (1968), ‘Do androids dream of electric sheep?’, Croydon, Orion publishing group
Dunnett. O., Maclaren. A. S., Klinger. J., Lane. K. M., Sage. D., (2019), ‘Geographies of outer space: progress and new opportunities’, Progress in human geography [online], 43(2), pp.314 – 336. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132517747727. Date accessed: 27/1/2021
Faber. M., (2000), ‘Under the skin’, Edinburgh, Canongate books
Gallupe. O., Baron. S. W., (2014), ‘Morality, self-control, deterrence, and drug use: street youths and situational action theory’, Crime and delinquency [online], 60(2), pp. 284 – 305. Available from: DOI: 10.1177/0011128709359661. Date accessed: 2/2/2021
Gildart. K., (2013), ‘Aliens in England: Slade, David Bowie, Ziggy Stardust and glam rock’ in: Images of England through popular music. Palgrave Macmillan, London, pp.151-173.
Harburg. E. Y., Arlen. H., (1939), Over the rainbow. New York. Leo Feist, Inc.
Heller. J., (2017), ‘How ‘Ashes to Ashes’ put the first act of David Bowie’s career to rest’, The record [online]. Available from: https://www.npr.org/sections/therecord/2017/10/06/555850186/how-ashes-to-ashes-put-the-first-act-of-david-bowies-career-to-rest?t=1612294937790. Date accessed: 5/2/2021
(Cover photo) Jacob Burns film centre, (date unknown, possible screenshot taken from 1973 footage), ‘Ziggy Stardust and the spiders from Mars [online image]. Available from: https://burnsfilmcenter.org/booking/ziggy-stardust-and-the-spiders-from-mars/
Jowett. A., (2017), ‘Representing the history of LGBT rights: political rhetoric surrounding the 50th anniversary of the Sexual Offences Act 1967’, Psychology and sexuality [online], 8, pp. 306 – 317. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2017.1383303. Date accessed: 8/2/2021
Lupro. M. M., (2015), ‘Keeping space fantastic: The transformative journey of Major Tom’ in: Cinque. T., Moore., C., Redmond. S., (eds), Enchanting David Bowie: space/time/body/memory, London, Bloomsbury academic. Pp. 13 – 26
McLeod. K., (2003), ‘Space oddities: aliens, futurism and meaning in popular music’, Popular music [online], 22(2), pp. 337 – 355. Available from : https://www.jstor.org/stable/3877579. Date accessed: 27/1/2021
Morley. S., (2010), ‘The sublime: documents of contemporary art’. Whitechapel gallery, London.
Murdoch. I., (1959), ‘The sublime and the good’, Chicago review [online], 13(3), pp. 42 – 55. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/25293537. Date accessed: 11/2/2021
New York times archive, ‘NASA at 40: the 1980s’ [online]. Available at: https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/library/national/science/nasa/index-1980.html. Date accessed: 2/2/2021
ONS, (2019), Figure 1: The gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate and the unemployment rate have generally been falling since the mid-1980s [online image]. Available from: https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/economicoutputandproductivity/output/articles/changesintheeconomysincethe1970s/2019-09-02#authors
OSN, (2019), Figure 2: Interest rates and consumer prices index (CPI) inflation have been on a downward trend since 1991 [online image]. Available from: https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/economicoutputandproductivity/output/articles/changesintheeconomysincethe1970s/2019-09-02#authors
Parker M., (2011), ‘Managing space, organising the sublime.’ In: Landfester U., Remuss NL., Schrogl KU., Worms JC. (eds) Humans in Outer Space — Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Studies in Space Policy, vol 5. Springer, Vienna
Porteous. J. D., (1985), ‘Literature and human geography’, The royal geographical society [online], 17(2), pp.117 – 122. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20002164. Date accessed: 12/12/2020.
Sage. D., (2014), ‘How outer space made America: Geography, organisation and the cosmic sublime’, Routledge, Oxton.
Shaw. J. J. A., (2017), ‘From Beethoven to Bowie: Identity framing, social justice and the sound of law’, International Journal for the Semiotics of Law - Revue internationale de Sémiotique juridique [online], 31, pp. 301 – 324. Available from: https://rdcu.be/ceSYH. Date accessed: 27/1/2021
Smith. D., (2000), ‘Moral geographies: ethics in a world of difference’. Edinburgh university press, Edinburgh.
Tchaikovsky. A., (2015), ‘Children of time’, Tor, Croydon
Thrift. N., (2008), ‘Non-representational theory: Space, politics, affect’. Routledge, Oxton.
Úbeda. J. M. B., (2019), ‘Decision-making in song translation: an approach to the Spanish translation of David Bowie’s song ‘space oddity’’, TRANS: Journal of translation studies [online], 23, pp. 149 – 167. Available from: https://doi.org/10.24310/TRANS.2019.v0i23.4206. Date accessed: 26/1/2021
Williamson. R. A., (1987), ‘Outer space as frontier: lessons for today’, Western folklore [online], 46(4). Pp. 255 – 267. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1499888. Date accessed: 25/1/2021
